Review for Final

Agenda

1. Octopus farming, anyone?
2. Review for final
3. Writing the "objections" section of your paper. 
4. Reminders--quotation rules, honor code, chat GPT
5. Final next Friday 3-6 in this room.

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Animal Minds and Human Ethics

• 
  Intensive octopus farming?
  
• What do we need to know about their minds to decide whether this is bad?
• Singer's answer
• Wise's answer
• Andrews's answer
• Taking into account political categories

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Review for final

Topics and posts are below. We'll review based on the questions below, plus your questions. These review questions are not actual exam questions and don't represent everything you need to know!

Add your questions to the workbook--QR code to the right.

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March 26 Self Awareness: Prof. Howell 

1. Why did he say self-awareness is "pathological"?
2. What did he say about how often we are self-aware?

March 28 Self Awareness: DeGrazia's report card; mirror tests; episodic memory (past); episodic memory; (future); self-monitoring

Self Awareness

1. Why does DeGrazia think having desires is at all relevant to self-awareness?
2. Why is episodic memory relevant to self-awareness?
3. Episodic memory and anticipating the future are both types of ________?
4. The spoon test is a test of what?

The Mirror Test

1. Gallup was the first to argue that passing the mirror test is evidence of self-awareness. What iare some alternative hypotheses?
2. Which of these animals pass the mirror test--apes, baboons, other monkeys, dogs, cats, elephants?

April 4 Can animals think? (1) Descartes--animals can't think at all; animals solving novel problems; the vehicles of representation; Chalmers, extended mind; spider webs as "mind outside the head"

1. Why did Descartes say that animals can't think at all?
2. What is extended mind? What is Chalmers' example of extended mind?

April 6 Can animals think? (2): What is thinking/not thinking?; scientific debate; do animals have beliefs and desires?; Steven Stich--why animals have beliefs; Steven Stich--why animals don't have beliefs.

1. What are propositional attitudes?
2. What is Stich's argument that animals don't have beliefs?

April 11 Social Skills: knowledge of social status (baboons, Cheney & Seyfarth); vocalizations as communication vs. language; imitation in monkeys (Wynne); do animals have theory of mind?; do they have culture?

Baboons

1. How do Cheney and Seyfarth study what baboons know about each others' social status?
2. Cheney and Seyfarth say animals have a "language of thought" but don't use language to communicate. Why do they say these things?

Looking at experiments skeptically

1. The potato washing monkeys of Koshima, Japan, seem to imitate each other. Wynne says we should always consider alternative hypotheses. What's his alternative hypothesis in this case?
2. What alternative hypothesis does Wynne favor when he looks at experiments that seem to show theory of mind in animals?

April 13 Do animals have theory of mind?: Premack and Woodruff (1978); alternative hypotheses; false belief experiments in children and apes; do apes understand seeing?; apes vs. dogs

Premack and Woodruff

1. What is theory of mind?
2. What facet of theory of mind were Premack and Woodruff testing for in their 1978 study?
3. One alternative hypothesis is that the chimpanzees in the 1978 study were just engaging in "behavior reading" not "mindreading." What's the difference?

False Belief Tests

1. What is the false belief test?  When do children pass it?
2. In Krupene, Kano et al (2016), how do they measure whether chimpanzees pass the false belief test?

Understanding Seeing

1. What's an experiment that shows chimps have some understanding of other apes seeing?
2. Could the experiment in 1 demonstrate behavior reading, not mindreading?
3. What's an experiment that show they have limited understanding of seeing?

April 18 Morality in Animals: theory of mind recap; Frans DeWaal on empathy in animals; video: cooperation, empathy, reciprocity, fairness

1. There are many different concepts under the empathy umbrella. How are contagion and empathy different?
2. How did DeWaal show there is a sense of fairness in capuchin monkeys?
3. Does DeWaal succeed in showing that some animals have the precursors of morality?

April 20 Animal Minds, Human Ethics: Frans DeWaal & social contract view; Wise and the NonHuman Rights Project; Liberty for Elephants Argument (Wise); rights elitism

1. What does the Non-human Rights Project do for animals?
2. Why does Steven Wise think animals do have rights? (Which animals have rights on his view?)
3. Why does DeWaal think animals don't have rights?
4. For ethicists with the rights approach, what do we need to know about octopuses to decide whether they have rights?

April 25 Animal Minds, Human Ethics: Overview; Singer on equal consideration; insects and extermination; utilitarianism; rights approaches; political categories

1. What is Singer's argument that we should give equal consideration to chickens?
2. Does Singer think that equal consideration means treating chickens and chimpanzees just alike?
3. For ethicists like Singer who take a utilitarian approach, what do we need to know about octopuses to decide whether they are "moral patients"?
4. We treat our dogs very differently than we treat coyotes in my neighborhood. How might we use political categories to explain why this is right?

Paper Ideas

 Are you having trouble writing sections 3 and 4 of your paper?

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Structure #1--

• A (nobody doing this)
• C (HOT vs. Global Workspace)
• E (Sentience vs. Dawkins)

In Section 4 you will "adjudicate"--you will point out problems with the first view and problems with the second view and then pick the winner--the view with the fewest problems.

Structure #2--

• B (Godfrey-Smith)
• D (Shriver)
• F (DeGrazia)

In Section 3 you make objections to the view. In Section 4 you will consider how the author would respond and assess whether your objections can be overcome.

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Problems, objections--how to find them

1. Relevant blog post and class discussion should be starting point
2. Read, read, read...the more closely you examine the reading, the more you will think of problems.
3. People make many arguments--focus on the one for which you CAN think of an objection

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Types of objections

"This isn't clear"

1. Topic B--Godfrey-Smith says agency (in animals) makes sentience emerge. You say....

"I've got a counterexample"

1. Topic E--Dawkins says we can assess animal welfare solely in light of wants and health, not sentience. You say....

"Not enough proof"

1. Topic D--Shriver cites evidence that animals without ACC still have sensory pain, but not affective pain.  You say....

"This would lead to something bad"

1. Topic E--Birch and Browning say we should apply the Precautionary Principle. You say...
2. Topic D--Shriver favors genetically engineering animals without ACC, so without affective pain.  You say...

"This implies something truly absurd, so it can't be true" (Reductio Ad Absurdum)

1. Topic C--Gennero's views implies there is a constant clutter of HOTs in animal brains, to make animals conscious.  You say....

"That can be interpreted in another way"

1. Topic C--Gennaro says animals have I-thoughts based on experiments involving caching birds.  You say those experiments can also be interpreted as evidence of...
2. Topic F--DeGrazia cites mirror self-recognition experiments as evidence of self-awareness. You say. those experiments can also be interpreted as evidence of....

"The author is covertly assuming something implausible"

1. Topic B--Godfrey Smith says agency added to the biology of animals makes sentience.  You say he is assuming....

"Necessary but not sufficient"

1. Topic C--Carruthers says having information in a global workplace makes it conscious.  You say....

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Developing your objection

1. Make just a few objections thoroughly
2. Back up your objection.  An objection is not just a quick "stab"--you need to argue for your objection.  
3. You might back up the objection by discussing a specific passage in an article
4. If your objection involves cases, then think of more than one
5. Don't settle on an objection without imagining what the author would say. If they have an obvious great response, the objection is too weak and not worth making.

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Structure 1--section 4 you will consider the author's response to your objection

1. If it's too obvious and compelling, you didn't really have a good objection
2. Read relevant sections repeatedly to get a better feel for the way the author would respond.

Animal Minds, Human Ethics

Coming up

1. Thursday is our last day--we'll talk more about morality, review for final, etc.
2. Your lowest discussion grade will be dropped.
3. You should have turned in a paper plan and a first draft. You should be using my comments to produce your final draft.
4. If you have not done the plan/first draft, you do need to turn them in before the final draft. Turning things in very late is better than not turning them in at all.

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Recap

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Peter Singer

• Author of Animal Liberation and The Great Ape Project 
• Utilitarian ethics, not rights-based
• Must maximize total good--where pleasure is good, pain is bad 
• Jeremy Bentham (1879)--"The question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but, Can they suffer?"
• Focus: factory farming and animal experimentation

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Peter Singer: Equal Consideration for Chickens 

1. Chickens are sentient--they suffer pain, enjoy pleasure.
2. If an animal is sentient, they have interests. THEREFORE
3. Chickens have interests.
4. Equal interests should receive equal consideration, regardless of the race, sex, nationality (etc) or species of the interest-holder--anything else is racism, sexism, speciesism, etc. THEREFORE
5. The interests of chickens should receive equal consideration.
6. Our interests in eating cheap chicken are more trivial than a chicken's serious interest in avoiding suffering. THEREFORE
7. We should stop eating chicken and chickens should be treated more humanely.

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Chickens and chimpanzees

What does "equal consideration" mean?  

Should we be more concerned about the chimpanzees because they have more of these capacities?  

What would Singer say?

1. Sentience, pain, pleasure
2. Consciousness beyond sentience
3. Self-awareness--e.g. mirror self-recognition
4. Time travel--recalling oneself in past, anticipating oneself in future
5. Thinking--insight, solving novel problems, having beliefs
6. Beliefs about social status of others
7. Imitation, culture
8. Communication
9. Theory of mind--understanding minds of others
10. 
    Precursors of morality--empathy, fairness, cooperation etc. 

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Insects and exterminators

What would utilitarians say?

What does a rights approach say?

Guardian article
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More about the rights approach 

• Kristin Andrews--one of 17 philosophers who wrote an amicus brief for the court in the Tommy case supporting legal personhood for animals
• Judge Eugene Fahey--argues that the rights argument shouldn't focus on personhood, but on animals having inherent value (therefore rights)
• The amicus brief supported personhood for animals, based on a cluster concept

Tom Regan--what gives animals rights is that they're "subjects of a life"--not talk of animals as "persons."

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Beyond animal minds

• Animal minds --> moral status
• So studying animal minds is pivotal for ethics

But are there other factors?

Sue Donaldson & Will Kymllicka, Zoopolis

1. We don't think the rights of people are solely based on their mental capacities
2. We assign rights to people who are mentally just alike based on political categories
3. D&K apply same idea to animals

Animal Minds, Human Ethics

Announcements

1. two discussions left--
• Paper discussion (due April 26)
• Chickens and Chimpanzees (due May 1)
2. I've changed the discussion assignment group so your lowest grade is dropped
3. one quiz left--on the Andrews reading, due Tuesday
• your lowest two quiz scores are dropped

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From animal minds to human ethics

• given what we know about animal minds, should we say that animals have rights?

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Frans De Waal: Humane Traditionalism

• discusses animal rights in Appendix C
• generous view of animal minds
• ridicules animal law, the Non-Human Rights Project (Stephen Wise)
• it's silly to grant rights to primates or any other animals
• we may continue using animals in traditional ways
• but should do so humanely
• e.g. supports retirement for apes

Stephen Wise: Rights View

• teaches animal law
• author of Rattling the Cage
• leads the Non-human Rights Project

Peter Singer: Utilitarianism 

• commentary on DeWaal
• author of Animal Liberation and The Great Ape Project

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The Non-Human Rights Project (Wise)

• Free Happy Now
  
• Aims to get a judge to recognize a right to liberty possessed by Happy
• this would set a precedent, so lawyers for other animals could sue for their freedom 
• May 22, 2022--hearing -- 1:03 -- 1: 13:11
• Writ of Habeas Corpus--legal tool used to challenge detention
• other NhRP cases--Tommy the Chimp
• elephant sanctuaries, chimp sanctuaries
• the last 1000

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Happy at the Bronx Zoo

Liberty for Elephants Argument (Wise)

1. Elephants have very advanced abilities -- at least many of 1-10. (animal minds)
2. These abilities make them autonomous. (animal minds)
3. If elephants are autonomous, then they are persons (in a legal sense). (ethics, law)
4. If they are persons, then they are entitled to basic rights such as the right to liberty.  (ethics, law)
5. Happy's right to liberty is violated at the Bronx zoo. (ethics, law)         THEREFORE,
6. Happy should be released from the zoo and transferred to a sanctuary.

Which of 1-10 are relevant to autonomy?

1. Sentience, pain, pleasure
2. Consciousness beyond sentience
3. Self-awareness--e.g. mirror self-recognition
4. Time travel--recalling oneself in past, anticipating oneself in future
5. Thinking--insight, solving novel problems, having beliefs
6. Beliefs about social status of others
7. Imitation, culture
8. Communication
9. Theory of mind--understanding minds of others
10. Precursors of morality--empathy, fairness, cooperation etc.

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Beyond elephants (Wise)

• Which animals have enough of 1-10 to have autonomy, personhood, basic rights? 
• chimpanzees, orangutan
•  baboons, monkeys
• elephants, dolphins
• dogs, cats
• crows, chickens
• fish
• octopuses

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Responding to the NhRP (DeWaal)

• Agrees with the animal minds premises of the elephant argument
• Disagrees with the ethics/law premises
• DeWaal: rights are not just based on personhood/autonomy, they are based on a social contract

CHAOS, CONFLICT ==> AGREE TO A SOCIAL CONTRACT ==>  BASIC PRINCIPLES, RIGHTS

• Animals can't be contractors
• Contractors are not going to agree to rights for elephants!
• So elephants don't have rights

Morality in Animals

 

Recap

Theory of mind contest: human children vs. primates vs. dogs

🥇First place: Human children (see Cheney and Seyfarth, Baboon Metaphysics)

1. 6 months--follow mother's direction of gaze
2. 6-9 months--grasp what another is reaching for
3. 18 months--grasp likes and dislikes of others when different from their own
4. 2 years -- know to point at toy on a high shelf when asking for help reaching it, if parent wasn't in the room when toy was put there
5. 1-2 years -- children "want to share their experiences and emotions with others" (Cheney and Seyfarth p. 151)
6. 4 years--start passing the false belief test (e.g. they say that Snoopy doesn't know there are candles in the crayon box)

🥈Second place: dogs (Julianne Kaminski video)

1. Compared to apes, dogs are better at understanding they have to obey when they are seen
2. Better at understanding finger pointing and direction of gaze

🥉Third place: the great apes (chimpanzees, orangutans, bonobos)

1. Failed false belief test in many experiments for 30 years (Call and Tomasello 2008)
2. Passed false implicit belief test in more recent experiment (Krupene, Kano, et al 2016)
3. But there's some question they understand seeing (Povinelli and Vonk 2003)
4. They do understand hiding, finger pointing, direction of gaze, but not as well as dogs (Kaminski video)

Fourth place: baboons (monkeys, not apes)

1. Bad at hiding but they do hide
2. They also hide food in their mouths
3. Crossing rivers with infants--unaware of infants unique problems
4. But sensitive to distress

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Two questions:

1. Why do dogs do so well, despite being more distant from humans? (what does Kaminski say?)
2. Why don't apes do better? 

• DeWaal, Appendix B--Do Apes Have a Theory of Mind?

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Frans DeWaal

Can the rudiments of morality be found in primates and other animals?

Two possible answers:

1. Morality is purely human.  ❌
• Morality "tames the beast" in us. 
• Without human morality we'd act "like animals"--totally selfish and violent.  
• Morality is a "veneer" hiding our vicious animal nature.
2. Animals have the precursors of morality. ✅
• Our morality evolved from the precursors of morality in our animal ancestors.
• Animals today still have those precursors of morality.
• Our morality is deeply rooted in our natural inclinations.

What are the rudiments of morality that are found in animals?

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DeWaal's Methodology

1. largely studies animals in primate centers and zoos
2. studies them in their own groups
3. wants to avoid anthromorphism and anthropodenial
4. should avoid false positives, but also false negatives

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Empathy

A family of attitudes

• Emotional contagion--you feel X, I feel X
• Empathy--you feel X, I feel YOUR X
• Sympathy--I feel bad for you that you are feeling X
• Personal distress--you feel X and that distresses me
• Consolation--I put my arm around you because you feel X
• Post-fight consolation--bystander consoles the loser after a fight
• Targeted helping--I help you get what you need, which is different from what I need

Examples in animals

1. Empathic rats
2. Empathic rhesus monkeys--lever delivers food to me, shock to you.  About 2/3 of hungry rhesus monkeys refrain from pushing lever for many days.
3. Targeted helping -- 
• Kuni (chimp) helping bird
• Kinti Jua (chimp) saves boy -- Inside the Animal Mind
• Jakie(chimp) helps Krom with tires
• other cases in dolphins and elephants (connection to self-awareness?)
4. Post-fight consolation--proven in apes only

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Reciprocity

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Cooperation

1. Elephants, chimpanzees

Empathy

Reciprocity & Fairness

1. Chimpanzees share food more with those who groomed them earlier
2. Capuchin monkeys react negatively when paid less for equal work

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Preview

Animal Minds ---> Human Ethics

Capacities of animals, to some degree:

1. Sentience, pain, pleasure
2. Consciousness beyond sentience
3. Self-awareness--e.g. mirror self-recognition
4. Time travel--recalling oneself in past, anticipating oneself in future
5. Thinking--insight, solving novel problems, having beliefs
6. Beliefs about social status of others
7. Imitation, culture
8. Communication
9. Theory of mind--understanding minds of others
10. Precursors of morality--empathy, fairness, cooperation etc.

Do we owe more to animals, the more they have capacities 1-10

Or is sentience all that really matters?

Next time: DeWaal vs. Peter Singer on whether apes have rights

Next week: a range of views on what we owe to animals (Andrews)

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Do animals have theory of mind?

Theory of mind/mindreading

• Having a theory of mind = attributing to others mental states like believing, thinking, desiring, perceiving, trying, hoping, seeing, feeling, etc.
• Also called "mindreading" or just "attributing mental states"

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1. The first theory of mind experiments

Premack and Woodruff  "Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?" (1978) 

Details

1. One chimp--Sarah--had been on TV--had then spent 10 years in lab undergoing cognitive tests 5 days a week
2. Videos lasted just 30 seconds
3. There are two sets of videos--first set involves bananas, second set involves other problems
4. For each set of 4 videos there are 4 end-of-story pictures
5. Sarah is shown one video and then 2 "end of story" pictures
6. She almost always chose the picture that showed what the actor needed for success

Alternative Hypotheses

1. Just match-to-sample--NO because every video contains all of the end of-story-elements
2. Associative learning--NO, ruled out by her past experience
3. Empathy--NO, ruled out because she's not interested in these human activities
4. Mindreading-- YES, their conclusion
5. Behavior reading -- failed to consider

Commentators proposed false belief experiments as a better alternative.

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2. False belief experiments done on children

Can animals/children differentiate facts in the world from what another person falsely believes to be true?

 

Young child reasons--

1. There are candles in the box
2. Snoopy will say there are candles in the box

Intepretation: the child doesn't grasp that Snoopy has his own point of view, his own set of evidence, and so will have a false belief

Older child reasons--

1. There are candles in the box
2. Snoopy didn't see that there are candles in the box
3. Snoopy will say there are crayons in the box

Interpretation: the child grasps that Snoopy does have his own point of view, his own evidence, and so will have a false belief about what's in the box

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3. Do apes pass false belief tests?

Call and Tomasello--"Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? 30 years later" (2008)

1. Apes fail false belief test
2. They have other aspects of theory of mind

But here's a more recent experiment

Krupene, Kano, Hirata, Call, and Tomasello, "Great apes anticipate that other individuals will act according to false beliefs" (2016)

Test passed by chimpanzees, orangutans, and bonobos

Consider alternative hypotheses 

1. Mindreading--the guy SAW the food hidden under the first box so that's where I expect him to look
2. Behavior reading--the guy was there while the food was hidden under the first box so that's where I expect him to look

Why do apes do better at this task than other false belief tasks?

1. Ape doesn't have to make any explicit behavioral choices
2. This experiment shows "implicit" belief

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4. Do apes understand others as seeing?

Povinelli and Vonk, "Chimpanzee Minds, Suspiciously Human?"

Discussed by Clive Wynne and also Kristin Andrews, ch. 7

Chimps will beg for food from all these people
except for the person with their back turned in #4

What does success (d) show? 

1. Mindreading hypothesis
2. Behavior reading hypothesis

Do (a) - (c) show that apes are bad at both mindreading and behavior reading?

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5. Apes vs. dogs

_

Social Skills (1)

Social skills of animals

1. What do they understand about social status?
2. Do they have language?
3. Do they imitate each other?
4. Do they have cultures?
5. Do they have a "theory of mind"?
6. Do they have morality?

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Readings

1. Clive Wynne, excerpt from Can Animals Think? "Monkey see, monkey do?" (April 11)
2. Dorothy Cheney & Robert Seyfarth, excerpt from Baboon Metaphysics (April 13)
3. Frans De Waal, The Primate and the Philosopher (April 18, 20)
4. Kristin Andrews, The Animal Mind  (ch. 6-9)

Some lab science, some ethology

All engage with philosophical questions

A mix of attitudes--skeptical, open, eager

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What do animals know about each others' social status?

Dorothy Cheney and Robert Seyfarth, "The Evolution of Language from Social Cognition"

Kristin Andrews, The Animal Mind  chapter 5 (p. 111-112)

 

Baboon Metaphysics: The Evolution of Social Mind from Penn Arts & Sciences on Vimeo.

• matrilineal social structure studied first
• violation of expectation study using hidden speakers
• grunts are aggressive, screams are submissive
• hidden speaker plays

1. B4 GRUNTS, C9 SCREAMS (no surprise reaction)
   
2. C9 GRUNTS, B4 SCREAMS (surprise reaction)

• Cheney and Seyfarth argue: the baboons have "propositional attitudes"

• They believe that B4 is threatening C9
• They are surprised that C9 is threatening B4

• These structured thoughts are in a language of thought 
• alternative: could they have a diagram-like representation?
• These thoughts probably aren't conscious
• These thoughts are precursors of language

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Are the baboon vocalizations language?

Baboons have 10-20 screams and grunts, including the WAHOO

 

Vervet alarm calls

 

But is it language?

1. Human language is compositional -- syntax and semantics -- "The cat is on the mat."
2. Human language is "productive" -- you can produce and comprehend an unlimited number of sentences
3. Communicative intentions -- you say "pass the salt" with intentions about the hearer's beliefs -- this involves you having "theory of mind" 
• Do animals have enough "theory of mind" to have communicative intentions?
• More about this in next reading

Animal communication

1. 

   flanges "communicate" dominance 
   (some males don't have them)

   Definition. "any act of structure which alters the behaviors of other organisms, which evolved because of that effect, and which is effective because the receiver's response has also evolved." (Andrews p. 139)
2. This definition covers vocalizations but also displays and anatomical parts

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Teaching animals human languages

1. Can it be done?
2. If so, what does that show?

Snow days -- make-up content

1. Project Nim
2. Noam Chomsky discussing Project Nim
3. Irene Pepperberg discussing teaching language to Alex (a parrot)
4. Kristin Andrews, The Animal Mind chapter 5

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Imitation, learning, and culture

Reading, Clive Wynne, Can Animals Think? -- "Monkey See, Monkey Do?"

Frans De Waal--The Ape and the Sushi Master

• apprentice imitates the master
• easy?
• Potato washing macaque monkeys on Japanese island of Koshima (Imo, 1953) 

Wynne: must consider alternative hypotheses

1. What are the alternative hypotheses?
2. Must show that imitation is the best of all the hypotheses

Why do these monkeys wash potatoes? 

1. Associative learning--
• learning by associating "two objects, properties, or events" (Andrews glossary, p. 261)
• Salt and pepper, lightening and thunder, first half of scale, second half
• dogs: Leash and walk
• low level, very common ability
2. Imitation, similar to contagious yawning
3. Imitation for the sake of a perceived benefit

Is he really saying animals never imitate?

Are the Koshima monkeys a distinct macaque culture?

• What is culture?  different subgroups of same species have different practice
• Is this a good all-purpose definition?

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Theory of Mind

Reading--Clive Wynne, Can Animals Think? "Monkey see, monkey do?"

Next time--Cheney and Seyfarth, chapter from Baboon Metaphysics

What's the question?

1. Do animals have a "theory" of mind? (theory, because mental states aren't observed). 
2. Are animals mindreaders?
3. Do animals attribute purposes, intentions, perceptions, emotions, beliefs, desires, to others?

Irresistible to think they do. Cats and dogs look at us when they want food, or to go outside. Surely they know we have minds and they're trying to change our minds!

Theory of mind research

• about children
• about animals, starting with Premack and Woodruff, 1978

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Premack and Woodruff experiment (1978)

Sarah (chimp) watches video of human trying to solve problem, must choose solution from several options

Trying to reach bananas .... stand on box is solution

Trying to get out of locked cage.....key is solution

Trying to play a record ..... plugging it in is the solution

Premack and Woodruff discuss rival hypotheses:

1. Associative learning -- no, because problems haven't been seen before
2. Empathy  ("this is what I would do") .... no, because these aren't my problems
3. Mindreading/theory of mind ... yes, Sarah understands the actor's purposes

Wynne writes this off -- he focuses only on version #1 and seems to think the solution photo shows someone eating a banana, but it doesn't!

Another hypothesis--

1. Behavior reading

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A different paradigm: the false belief task

Example of how it can be posed to animals